We aim to use science for the benefit of human kind, and we aim for our science to have an impact. Our scientific discoveries build upon the work of previous great minds and the development of many molecular techniques, scientific methods, and technological breakthroughs, we have been able to contribute with novel insights within toxinology and antivenom development to the scientific community and society. With the support from generous donors, we have been able to make much of our work publicly available via publication in international peer-reviewed journals.

Peer review publications

2019

Kalogeropoulos K, Treschow AF, auf dem Keller U, Escalante T, Rucavado A, Gutiérrez JM, Laustsen AH, Workman CT. Protease activity profiling of snake venoms using high-throughput peptide screening. Toxins 2019, 11,170

Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs) are among the most abundant enzymes in many snake venoms, particularly among viperids. These proteinases are responsible for some of the clinical manifestations classically seen in viperid envenomings, including hemorrhage, necrosis, and coagulopathies. The objective of this study was to investigate the enzymatic activities of these proteins using a high-throughput peptide library to screen for the proteinase targets of the venoms of five viperid (Echis carinatus, Bothrops asper, Daboia russelii, Bitis arietans, Bitis gabonica) and one elapid (Naja nigricollis) species of high medical importance. The proteinase activities of these venoms were each tested against 360 peptide substrates, yielding 2160 activity profiles. A nonlinear regression model that accurately described the observed enzymatic activities was fitted to the experimental data, allowing for the comparison of cleavage rates across species. In this study, previously unknown protein targets of snake venom proteinases were identified, potentially implicating novel human and animal proteins that may be involved in the pathophysiology of viper envenomings. The functional relevance of these targets was further evaluated and discussed. These new findings may contribute to our understanding of the clinical manifestations and underlying biochemical mechanisms of snakebite envenoming by viperid species. Read it

Jenkins TP, Fryer T, Dehli RI, Jürgensen JA, Fuglsang-Madsen A, Føns S, Laustsen AH. Toxin neutralization using alternative binding proteins. Toxins 2019, 11,53

Animal toxins present a major threat to human health worldwide, predominantly through snakebite envenomings, which are responsible for over 100,000 deaths each year. To date, the only available treatment against snakebite envenoming is plasma-derived antivenom. However, despite being key to limiting morbidity and mortality among snakebite victims, current antivenoms suffer from several drawbacks, such as immunogenicity and high cost of production. Consequently, avenues for improving envenoming therapy, such as the discovery of toxin-sequestering monoclonal antibodies against medically important target toxins through phage display selection, are being explored. However, alternative binding protein scaffolds that exhibit certain advantages compared to the well-known immunoglobulin G scaffold, including high stability under harsh conditions and low cost of production, may pose as possible low-cost alternatives to antibody-based therapeutics. There is now a plethora of alternative binding protein scaffolds, ranging from antibody derivatives (e.g., nanobodies), through rationally designed derivatives of other human proteins (e.g., DARPins), to derivatives of non-human proteins (e.g., affibodies), all exhibiting different biochemical and pharmacokinetic profiles. Undeniably, the high level of engineerability and potentially low cost of production, associated with many alternative protein scaffolds, present an exciting possibility for the future of snakebite therapeutics and merit thorough investigation. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the different types of binding protein scaffolds is provided together with a discussion on their relevance as potential modalities for use as next-generation antivenoms. Read it

2018

Kini RM, Sidhu S, Laustsen AH. Biosynthetic Oligoclonal Antivenom (BOA) for snakebite and next-generation treatments for snakebite victims. Toxins 2018, 10;p1-10

Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that each year claims the lives of 80,000–140,000 victims worldwide. The only effective treatment against envenoming involves intravenous administration of antivenoms that comprise antibodies that have been isolated from the plasma of immunized animals, typically horses. The drawbacks of such conventional horse-derived antivenoms include their propensity for causing allergenic adverse reactions due to their heterologous and foreign nature, an inability to effectively neutralize toxins in distal tissue, a low content of toxin-neutralizing antibodies, and a complex manufacturing process that is dependent on husbandry and procurement of snake venoms. In recent years, an opportunity to develop a fundamentally novel type of antivenom has presented itself. By using modern antibody discovery strategies, such as phage display selection, and repurposing small molecule enzyme inhibitors, next-generation antivenoms that obviate the drawbacks of existing plasma-derived antivenoms could be developed. This article describes the conceptualization of a novel therapeutic development strategy for biosynthetic oligoclonal antivenom (BOA) for snakebites based on recombinantly expressed oligoclonal mixtures of human monoclonal antibodies, possibly combined with repurposed small molecule enzyme inhibitors. Read it

Bermúdez-Méndez E, Fuglsang-Madsen A, Føns S, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Laustsen AH. Innovative immunization strategies for antivenom development. Toxins 2018, 10;p1-37

Snakes, scorpions, and spiders are venomous animals that pose a threat to human health, and severe envenomings from the bites or stings of these animals must be treated with antivenom. Current antivenoms are based on plasma-derived immunoglobulins or immunoglobulin fragments from hyper-immunized animals. Although these medicines have been life-saving for more than 120 years, opportunities to improve envenoming therapy exist. In the later decades, new biotechnological tools have been applied with the aim of improving the efficacy, safety, and affordability of antivenoms. Within the avenues explored, novel immunization strategies using synthetic peptide epitopes, recombinant toxins (or toxoids), or DNA strings as immunogens have demonstrated potential for generating antivenoms with high therapeutic antibody titers and broad neutralizing capacity. Furthermore, these approaches circumvent the need for venom in the production process of antivenoms, thereby limiting some of the complications associated with animal captivity and venom collection. Finally, an important benefit of innovative immunization approaches is that they are often compatible with existing antivenom manufacturing setups. In this review, we compile all reported studies examining venom-independent innovative immunization strategies for antivenom development. In addition, a brief description of toxin families of medical relevance found in snake, scorpion, and spider venoms is presented, as well as how biochemical, bioinformatic, and omics tools could aid the development of next-generation antivenoms. Read it

Laustsen AH, Karat-Vellat A, Masters EW, Arias AS, Pus U, Knudsen C, Oscoz S, Slanvy P, Griffiths DT, Luther AM, Leah RA, Lindholm M, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, McCafferty J. In vivo neutralization of dendrotoxin-mediated neurotoxicity of black mamba venom by oligoclonal human IgG antibodies. Nature Communications 2018, 9; 3928

The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is one of the most feared snake species of the African savanna. It has a potent, fast-acting neurotoxic venom comprised of dendrotoxins and α-neurotoxins associated with high fatality in untreated victims. Current antivenoms are both scarce on the African continent and present a number of drawbacks as they are derived from the plasma of hyper-immunized large mammals. Here, we describe the development of an experimental recombinant antivenom by a combined toxicovenomics and phage display approach. The recombinant antivenom is based on a cocktail of fully human immunoglobulin G (IgG) monoclonal antibodies capable of neutralizing dendrotoxin-mediated neurotoxicity of black mamba whole venom in a rodent model. Our results show the potential use of fully human monoclonal IgGs against animal toxins and the first use of oligoclonal human IgG mixtures against experimental snakebite envenoming. Read it

Ledsgaard L, Jenkins TP, Davidsen K, Krause KE, Martos-Esteban A, Engmark M, Andersen MR, Lund O, Laustsen AH. Antibody cross-reactivity in antivenom research. Toxins 2018, 10 (10), p393

Antivenom cross-reactivity has been investigated for decades to determine which antivenoms can be used to treat snakebite envenomings from different snake species. Traditionally, the methods used for analyzing cross-reactivity have been immunodiffusion, immunoblotting, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), enzymatic assays, and in vivo neutralization studies. In recent years, new methods for determination of cross-reactivity have emerged, including surface plasmon resonance, antivenomics, and high-density peptide microarray technology. Antivenomics involves a top-down assessment of the toxin-binding capacities of antivenoms, whereas high-density peptide microarray technology may be harnessed to provide in-depth knowledge on which toxin epitopes are recognized by antivenoms. This review provides an overview of both the classical and new methods used to investigate antivenom cross-reactivity, the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and examples of studies using the methods. A special focus is given to antivenomics and high-density peptide microarray technology as these high-throughput methods have recently been introduced in this field and may enable more detailed assessments of antivenom cross-reactivity. Read it

Laustsen AH. Current progress towards the next generation of antivenoms. Toxicon 2018, 150; p319
Laustsen AH, Dorrestijn N. Integrating engineering, manufacturing, and regulatory considerations in the development of novel antivenoms. Toxins 2018, 10, 309

Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that requires immediate attention. Conventional plasma-derived snakebite antivenoms have existed for more than 120 years and have been instrumental in saving thousands of lives. However, both a need and an opportunity exist for harnessing biotechnology and modern drug development approaches to develop novel snakebite antivenoms with better efficacy, safety, and affordability. For this to be realized, though, development approaches, clinical testing, and manufacturing must be feasible for any novel treatment modality to be brought to the clinic. Here, we present engineering, manufacturing, and regulatory considerations that need to be taken into account for any development process for a novel antivenom product, with a particular emphasis on novel antivenoms based on mixtures of monoclonal antibodies. We highlight key drug development challenges that must be addressed, and we attempt to outline some of the important shifts that may have to occur in the ways snakebite antivenoms are designed and evaluated. Read it

Martos-Esteban A, Carrinton M, Laustsen AH. Harnessing snake venoms to make T. brucei forever go to sleep. Toxicon 2018, 152, p315-334

Trypanosoma brucei is a parasitic protozoan species capable of infecting insects, whose bite transmits African sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis) in humans. Current treatments are becoming ineffective due to the parasite’s ability to avoid the lytic immunogenic response of the host. The parasite achieves this avoidance by modifying the composition of its outer coat, which is mainly composed of Variable Surface Glycoprotein (VSG). Snake venoms are composed of toxic proteins and peptides, with or without enzymatic activity, and a range of other molecules that may influence physiological processes. Previously, it has been demonstrated that viper venoms are able to kill certain parasitic species, but elapid snake venoms have never been investigated. The venom of the elapid Naja nigricollis (black-necked spitting cobra) is mainly composed of cytotoxic three-finger toxins (cytotoxins) that interfere with and disrupt cellular membranes with high target specificity. Here, we investigated how T. brucei is affected when this parasite is subjected to whole venom of N. nigricollis. Read it

Dam SH, Friis RUW, Petersen SD, Martos-Esteban A, Laustsen AH. Snake Venomics Display: An online toolbox for visualization of snake venomics data. Toxicon 2018, 152, p60-64

With the introduction of powerful mass spectrometry equipment into the field of snake venom proteomics, a large body of venomics data is accumulating. To allow for better comparison between venom compositions from different snake species and to provide an online database containing this data, we devised the Snake Venomics Display toolbox for visualization of snake venomics data on linear scales. This toolbox is freely available to be used online at https://tropicalpharmacology.com/tools/snake-venomics-display/ and allows researchers to visualize venomics data in a Relative Abundance (%) visualization mode and in an Absolute Abundance (mg) visualization mode, the latter taking venom yields into account. The curated venomics data for all snake species included in this database is also made available in a downloadable Excel file format. The Snake Venomics Display toolbox represents a simple way of handling snake venomics data, which is better suited for large data sets of venom compositions from multiple snake species. Read it

Ledsgaard L, Kilstrup M, Karatt-Vellat A, McCafferty J, Laustsen AH. Basics of antibody phage display technology. Toxins 2018, 10 (6), 236

Antibody discovery has become increasingly important in almost all areas of modern medicine. Different antibody discovery approaches exist, but one that has gained increasing interest in the field of toxinology and antivenom research is phage display technology. In this review, the lifecycle of the M13 phage and the basics of phage display technology are presented together with important factors influencing the success rates of phage display experiments. Moreover, the pros and cons of different antigen display methods and the use of naïve versus immunized phage display antibody libraries is discussed, and selected examples from the field of antivenom research are highlighted. This review thus provides in-depth knowledge on the principles and use of phage display technology with a special focus on discovery of antibodies that target animal toxins. Read it

Laustsen AH. Toxin-centric development approach for next generation antivenoms. Toxicon 2018 150, p195-197
Laustsen AH, Gutiérrez JM, Knudsen C, Johansen KH, Bermúdez-Méndez E, Cerni FA, Jürgensen JA, Øhlenschlæger M, Ledsgaard L, Martos-Esteban A, Pus U, Andersen MR, Lomonte B, Engmark M, Pucca MB. Pros and cons of different therapeutic antibody formats for recombinant antivenom development. Toxicon 2018, 146; p151-175.

Antibody technologies are being increasingly applied in the field of toxinology. Fuelled by the many advances in immunology, synthetic biology, and antibody research, different approaches and antibody formats are being investigated for the ability to neutralize animal toxins. These different molecular formats each have their own therapeutic characteristics. In this review, we provide an overview of the advances made in the development of toxin-targeting antibodies, and discuss the benefits and drawbacks of different antibody formats in relation to their ability to neutralize toxins, pharmacokinetic features, propensity to cause adverse reactions, formulation, and expression for research and development (R&D) purposes and large-scale manufacturing. A research trend seems to be emerging towards the use of human antibody formats as well as camelid heavy-domain antibody fragments due to their compatibility with the human immune system, beneficial therapeutic properties, and the ability to manufacture these molecules cost-effectively. Read it

2017
Engmark M, Jespersen MC, Lomonte B, Lund O, Laustsen AH. High-density peptide microarray exploration of the antibody response in a rabbit immunized with a neurotoxic venom fraction. Toxicon 2017, 138; p151-158.

Polyvalent snakebite antivenoms derive their therapeutic success from the ability of their antibodies to neutralize venom toxins across multiple snake species. This ability results from a production process involving immunization of large mammals with a broad suite of toxins present in venoms. As a result of immunization with this wide range of toxins, many polyvalent antivenoms have a high degree of cross-reactivity to similar toxins in other snake venoms – a cross-reactivity which cannot easily be deconvoluted. As a proof of concept, we aimed at exploring the opposite scenario by performing a high-throughput evaluation of the extent of cross-reactivity of a polyclonal mixture of antibodies that was raised against only a single snake venom fraction. For this purpose, a venom fraction containing short neurotoxin 1 (SN-1; Uniprot accession number P01416, three-finger toxin (3FTx) family), which is the medically most important toxin from the notorious black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), was employed. Following immunization of a rabbit, a specific polyclonal antibody response was confirmed by ELISA and immunodiffusion. Subsequently, these antibodies were investigated by high-density peptide microarray to reveal linear elements of recognized epitopes across 742 3FTxs and 10 dendrotoxins. This exploratory study demonstrates in a single immunized animal that cross-reactivity between toxins of high similarity may be difficult to obtain when immunizing with a single 3FTx containing venom fraction. Additionally, this study explored the influence of employing different lengths of peptides in high-density peptide microarray experiments for identification of toxin epitopes. Using 8-mer, 12-mer, and 15-mer peptides, a single linear epitope element was identified in SN-1 with high precision. Read it

Ainsworth S, Petras D, Engmark M, Süssmuth RD, Whiteley G, Albulescu LO, Kazandjian TD, Wagstaff SC, Rowley P, Wüster W, Dorrestein PC, Arias AS, Gutiérrez JM, Harrison RA, Casewell NR, Calvete JJ. The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms. Journal of Proteomics 2017, 172; p173-189.

Mambas (genus Dendroaspis) are among the most feared of the medically important elapid snakes found in sub-Saharan Africa, but many facets of their biology, including the diversity of venom composition, remain relatively understudied. Here, we present a reconstruction of mamba phylogeny, alongside genus-wide venom gland transcriptomic and high-resolution top-down venomic analyses. Whereas the green mambas, D. viridis, D. angusticeps, D. j. jamesoni and D. j. kaimosae, express 3FTx-predominant venoms, black mamba (D. polylepis) venom is dominated by dendrotoxins I and K. The divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas makes it plausible that this major difference in venom composition is due to dietary variation. The pattern of intrageneric venom variability across Dendroaspis represented a valuable opportunity to investigate, in a genus-wide context, the variant toxicity of the venom, and the degree of paraspecific cross-reactivity between antivenoms and mamba venoms. To this end, the immunological profiles of the five mamba venoms were assessed against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview of which available antivenoms may be more efficacious in neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the notably different potency and pharmacological profiles of Dendroaspis venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will allow selection and design of toxin immunogens with a view to generating a safer and more efficacious pan-specific antivenom against any mamba envenomation. Read it

Laustsen AH. Guiding recombinant antivenom development by omics technologies. New Biotechnology 2017, in press.

In this review, the different approaches that have been employed with the aim of developing novel antivenoms against animal envenomings are presented and discussed. Reported efforts have focused on the use of innovative immunization strategies, small molecule inhibitors against enzymatic toxins, endogenous animal proteins with toxin-neutralizing capabilities, and recombinant monoclonal antibodies. Harnessing either of these approaches, antivenom development may benefit from an in-depth understanding of venom compositions and the medical importance of individual venom toxins. Focus is thus also directed towards the different omics technologies (particularly venomics, antivenomics, and toxicovenomics) that are being used to uncover novel animal toxins, shed light on venom complexity, and provide directions for how to determine the medical relevance of individual toxins within whole venoms. Finally, techniques for assessing antivenom specificity and cross-reactivity are reviewed, with special focus on antivenomics and high-density peptide microarray technology. Read it

Engmark M, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Laustsen AH, De Masi F, Andersen MR, Lund O. Cross-recognition of a pit viper (Crotalinae) polyspecific antivenom explored through high-density peptide microarray epitope mapping. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2017, 7; e0005768.

Snakebite antivenom is a 120 years old invention based on polyclonal mixtures of antibodies purified from the blood of hyper-immunized animals. Knowledge on antibody recognition sites (epitopes) on snake venom proteins is limited, but may be used to provide molecular level explanations for antivenom cross-reactivity. In turn, this may help guide antivenom development by elucidating immunological biases in existing antivenoms. In this study, we have identified and characterized linear elements of B-cell epitopes from 870 pit viper venom protein sequences by employing a high-throughput methodology based on custom designed high-density peptide microarrays. By combining data on antibody-peptide interactions with multiple sequence alignments of homologous toxin sequences and protein modelling, we have determined linear elements of antibody binding sites for snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs), phospholipases A2s (PLA2s), and snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs). The studied antivenom antibodies were found to recognize linear elements in each of the three enzymatic toxin families. In contrast to a similar study of elapid (non-enzymatic) neurotoxins, these enzymatic toxins were generally not recognized at the catalytic active site responsible for toxicity, but instead at other sites, of which some are known for allosteric inhibition or for interaction with the tissue target. Antibody recognition was found to be preserved for several minor variations in the protein sequences, although the antibody-toxin interactions could often be eliminated completely by substitution of a single residue. This finding is likely to have large implications for the cross-reactivity of the antivenom and indicate that multiple different antibodies are likely to be needed for targeting an entire group of toxins in these recognized sites. Read it

Laustsen AH, Johansen KH, Engmark M, Andersen MR. Recombinant snakebite antivenoms: A cost-competitive solution to a neglected tropical disease? PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2017, 11; e0005361.

Snakebite envenoming is a major public health burden in tropical parts of the developing world. In sub-Saharan Africa, neglect has led to a scarcity of antivenoms threatening the lives and limbs of snakebite victims. Technological advances within antivenom are warranted, but should be evaluated not only on their possible therapeutic impact, but also on their cost-competitiveness. Recombinant antivenoms based on oligoclonal mixtures of human IgG antibodies produced by CHO cell cultivation may be the key to obtaining better snakebite envenoming therapies. Based on industry data, the cost of treatment for a snakebite envenoming with a recombinant antivenom is estimated to be in the range USD 60–250 for the Final Drug Product. One of the effective antivenoms (SAIMR Snake Polyvalent Antivenom from the South African Vaccine Producers) currently on the market has been reported to have a wholesale price of USD 640 per treatment for an average snakebite. Recombinant antivenoms may therefore in the future be a cost-competitive alternative to existing serum-based antivenoms. Read it

Laustsen AH, Engmark M, Clouser C, Timberlake S, Vigneault F, Gutiérrez JM, Lomonte B. Exploration of immunoglobulin transcriptomes from mice immunized with three­‐finger toxins and phospholipases A2 from the Central American coral snake, Micrurus nigrocinctus. PeerJ 2017, 5; e2924.

Snakebite envenomings represent a neglected public health issue in many parts of the rural tropical world. Animal-derived antivenoms have existed for more than a hundred years and are effective in neutralizing snake venom toxins when timely administered. However, the low immunogenicity of many small but potent snake venom toxins represents a challenge for obtaining a balanced immune response against the medically relevant components of the venom. Here, we employ high-throughput sequencing of the immunoglobulin (Ig) transcriptome of mice immunized with a three-finger toxin and a phospholipase A2 from the venom of the Central American coral snake, Micrurus nigrocinctus. Although exploratory in nature, our indicate results showed that only low frequencies of mRNA encoding IgG isotypes, the most relevant isotype for therapeutic purposes, were present in splenocytes of five mice immunized with 6 doses of the two types of toxins over 90 days. Furthermore, analysis of Ig heavy chain transcripts showed that no particular combination of variable (V) and joining (J) gene segments had been selected in the immunization process, as would be expected after a strong humoral immune response to a single antigen. Combined with the titration of toxin-specific antibodies in the sera of immunized mice, these data support the low immunogenicity of three-finger toxins and phospholipases A2found in M. nigrocinctusvenoms, and highlight the need for future studies analyzing the complexity of antibody responses to toxins at the molecular level. Read it

Laustsen AH, Lauridsen LP, Lomonte B, Andersen MR, Lohse B. Pitfalls to avoid when using phage display for snake toxins. Toxicon 2017, 126; p79-89.

Antivenoms against bites and stings from snakes, spiders, and scorpions are associated with immunological side effects and high cost of production, since these therapies are still derived from the serum of hyper-immunized production animals. Biotechnological innovations within envenoming therapies are thus warranted, and phage display technology may be a promising avenue for bringing antivenoms into the modern era of biologics. Although phage display technology represents a robust and high-throughput approach for the discovery of antibody-based antitoxins, several pitfalls may present themselves when animal toxins are used as targets for phage display selection. Here, we report selected critical challenges from our own phage display experiments associated with biotinylation of antigens, clone picking, and the presence of amber codons within antibody fragment structures in some phage display libraries. These challenges may be detrimental to the outcome of phage display experiments, and we aim to help other researchers avoiding these pitfalls by presenting their solutions. Read it

Lauridsen LP, Laustsen AH, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM. Exploring the venom of the forest cobra snake: Toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of Naja melanoleuca. Journal of Proteomics 2017, 150; p98-108.

A toxicovenomic analysis of the venom of the forest cobra, N. melanoleuca, was performed, revealing the presence of a total of 52 proteins by proteomics analysis. The most abundant proteins belong to the three-finger toxins (3FTx) (57.1wt%), which includes post-synaptically acting α-neurotoxins. Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) were the second most abundant group of proteins (12.9wt%), followed by metalloproteinases (SVMPs) (9.7wt%), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs) (7.6wt%), and Kunitz-type serine proteinase inhibitors (3.8wt%). A number of additional protein families comprised each <3wt% of venom proteins. A toxicity screening of the fractions, using the mouse lethality test, identified toxicity in RP-HPLC peaks 3, 4, 5 and 8, all of them containing α-neurotoxins of the 3FTx family, whereas the rest of the fractions did not show toxicity at a dose of 0.53 mg/kg. Three polyspecific antivenoms manufactured in South Africa and India were tested for their immunoreactivity against crude venom and fractions of N. melanoleuca. Overall, antivenoms immunorecognized all fractions in the venom, the South African antivenom showing a higher titer against the neurotoxin-containing fractions. This toxicovenomic study identified the 3FTx group of α-neurotoxins in the venom of N. melanoleuca as the relevant targets to be neutralized. Read it

2016
Engmark M, Andersen MR, Laustsen AH, Patel J, Sullivan E, de Masi F, Hansen CS, Kringelum JV, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, Lund O. High-throughput immuno-profiling of mamba (Dendroaspis) venom toxin epitopes using high-density peptide microarrays. Scientific Reports 2016, 6; 36629.

Snakebite envenoming is a serious condition requiring medical attention and administration of antivenom. Current antivenoms are antibody preparations obtained from the plasma of animals immunised with whole venom(s) and contain antibodies against snake venom toxins, but also against other antigens. In order to better understand the molecular interactions between antivenom antibodies and epitopes on snake venom toxins, a high-throughput immuno-profiling study on all manually curated toxins from Dendroaspis species and selected African Naja species was performed based on custom-made high-density peptide microarrays displaying linear toxin fragments. By detection of binding for three different antivenoms and performing an alanine scan, linear elements of epitopes and the positions important for binding were identified. A strong tendency of antivenom antibodies recognizing and binding to epitopes at the functional sites of toxins was observed. With these results, high-density peptide microarray technology is for the first time introduced in the field of toxinology and molecular details of the evolution of antibody-toxin interactions based on molecular recognition of distinctive toxic motifs are elucidated. Read it

Laustsen AH. Costing recombinant antivenoms. Nature 2016, 538; p41

The cost of producing antivenoms from recombinant human antibodies to counter the shortage of animal-derived antisera against snakebites is not as prohibitive as you imply (Nature 53726282016).

We estimate that 500–2,000 kilograms of therapeutically active antibodies would be needed to produce enough antivenom to treat the 1 million or so people bitten annually by snakes in sub-Saharan Africa. On the basis of production data for monoclonal antibodies (N. Hammerschmidt et alBiotechnol. J. 97667752014) and for oligoclonal antibody mixtures (S. K. Rasmussen et alArch. Biochem. Biophys. 5261391452012), we calculate that antivenoms created from a mixture of recombinant antibodies could be produced on this scale for US$55–65 per gram.

A typical African snakebite could therefore be treated with a pan-African recombinant-antibody antivenom for $30–150. This compares favourably with the wholesale cost of a typical dose of conventional antiserum ($60–600, which includes packaging and transport, as well as production, costs). Read it

Laustsen AH. Toxin synergism in elapid snake venoms. Toxin Reviews 2016, 35; p165-170.

Synergism between venom toxins exists for a range of snake species. Synergism can be derived from both intermolecular interactions and supramolecular interactions between venom components, and can be the result of toxins targeting the same protein, biochemical pathway or physiological process. Few simple systematic tools and methods for determining the presence of synergism exist, but include co-administration of venom components and assessment of Accumulated Toxicity Scores. A better understanding of how to investigate synergism in snake venoms may help unravel strategies for developing novel therapies against snakebite envenoming by elucidating mechanisms for toxicity and interactions between venom components. Read it

Laustsen AH, Solà M, Jappe EC, Oscoz S, Lauridsen LP, Engmark M. Biotechnological trends in spider and scorpion antivenom development. Toxins 2016, 8; p1-33

Spiders and scorpions are notorious for their fearful dispositions and their ability to inject venom into prey and predators, causing symptoms such as necrosis, paralysis, and excruciating pain. Information on venom composition and the toxins present in these species is growing due to an interest in using bioactive toxins from spiders and scorpions for drug discovery purposes and for solving crystal structures of membrane-embedded receptors. Additionally, the identification and isolation of a myriad of spider and scorpion toxins has allowed research within next generation antivenoms to progress at an increasingly faster pace. In this review, the current knowledge of spider and scorpion venoms is presented, followed by a discussion of all published biotechnological efforts within development of spider and scorpion antitoxins based on small molecules, antibodies and fragments thereof, and next generation immunization strategies. The increasing number of discovery and development efforts within this field may point towards an upcoming transition from serum-based antivenoms towards therapeutic solutions based on modern biotechnology. Read it

Laustsen AH. Recombinant antivenoms. PhD thesis. University of Copenhagen, Denmark. ISBN 978‐87­‐93086­‐61‐6.

With an annual 5 million cases, 150,000 deaths, and about 400,000 amputations, snakebite envenoming is an ever-present threat in many parts of the rural tropical world. Parental administration of animal-derived, serum-based antivenoms remains the mainstay of snakebite envenoming therapy. However, the high level of immunogenicity of such heterologous medicines leads to severe side effects in human recipients. In order to bring antivenoms into the modern era of biopharmaceuticals, it is important to have a thorough understanding of snake venom toxins and to have an optimal antitoxin discovery strategy. In this thesis, a novel approach is presented on how to develop synthetic and recombinant antivenoms based on a range of different molecules, including peptides, nanobodies, antibodies, and antibody fragments. This approach is based on toxicovenomics and phage display selection.
In the work behind this thesis, a systematic method for selecting key toxins for antitoxin discovery was developed (the Toxicity Score). The combination of this approach with the venomics strategy was a central element in the establishment of the new field of toxicovenomics – the study of snake venom proteomes in relation to the pathophysiological effects of their toxins. Four toxicovenomics studies were performed on the venoms of Dendroaspis polylepis (Black mamba), Dendroaspis angusticeps (Eastern green mamba), Naja kaouthia (Monocled cobra), and Aipysurus laevis (Olive sea snake). These studies not only estimated the quantitative venom proteomes of these snakes and identified the medically most relevant toxins responsible for the pathophysiological effects of the venoms, but also revealed mechanistic differences between the venoms. As an example, the venoms from the black mamba, the green mamba, and the olive sea snake showed synergistic behaviors, while the venom from the monocled cobra displayed a dominance of non-synergistically-acting α-neurotoxins. α-neurotoxins played a major role in venom toxicity for all venoms, which cause flaccid paralysis in rodent models.
Several drug discovery programs based on phage display selection were carried out, aiming at finding antitoxins against the medically relevant toxins identified in the toxicovenomic studies. A few hundreds of peptide-displaying phages, dozens of nanobody-displaying phages, and over a thousand human scFv-displaying phages were selected and screened. Among these, dozens of promising peptidic antitoxins with inhibitory effects against elapid neurotoxins were identified. In two-electrode voltage clamp assays using Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) oocytes, Peptide 33535 was capable of abrogating α-cobratoxin induced inhibition (at a concentration of 40 μM peptide and 100 μM α-cobratoxin) of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, responsible for neuromuscular transmission. This peptide was shown by isothermal titration calorimetry to bind to α-cobratoxin with a Kd of 20 μM. However, despite these positive results, much more research is needed before recombinant or synthetic antivenoms may reach the clinic and benefit victims of snakebite envenoming.
It is the hope that the work presented here will help enable that snakebite victims around the world will gain access to inexpensive and safe recombinant antivenom with high efficacy.

Laustsen AH, Engmark M, Milbo C, Johannesen J, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM, and Lohse B. From Fangs to Pharmacology: The Future of Snakebite Envenoming Therapy. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2016, 22; p5270-5293.

The snake is the symbol of medicine due to its association with Asclepius, the Greek God of medicine, and so with good reasons. More than 725 species of venomous snakes have toxins specifically evolved to exert potent bioactivity in prey or victims, and snakebites constitute a public health hazard of high impact in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and parts of Oceania. Parenteral administration of antivenoms is the mainstay in snakebite envenoming therapy. However, despite well-demonstrated efficacy and safety of many antivenoms worldwide, they are still being produced by traditional animal immunization procedures, and therefore present a number of drawbacks. Technological advances within biopharmaceutical development and medicinal chemistry could pave the way for rational drug design approaches against snake toxins. This could minimize the use of animals and bring forward more effective therapies for snakebite envenomings. In this review, current state-of-the-art in biopharmaceutical antitoxin development is presented together with an overview of available bioinformatics and structural data on snake venom toxins. This growing body of scientific and technological tools could define the basis for introducing a rational drug design approach into the field of snakebite envenoming therapy. Read it

Lauridsen LP, Laustsen AH, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM. Toxicovenomics and antivenom profiling of the Eastern green mamba snake (Dendroaspis angusticeps). Journal of Proteomics 2016, 136; p248-261.

A toxicovenomic study was performed on the venom of the green mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps. Forty-two different proteins were identified in the venom of D. angusticeps, in addition to the nucleoside adenosine. The most abundant proteins belong to the three-finger toxin (3FTx) (69.2%) and the Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor (16.3%) families. Several sub-subfamilies of the 3FTxs were identified, such as Orphan Group XI (Toxin F-VIII), acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (fasciculins), and aminergic toxins (muscarinic toxins, synergistic-like toxins, and adrenergic toxins). Remarkably, no α-neurotoxins were identified. Proteins of the Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitor family include dendrotoxins. Toxicological screening revealed a lack of lethal activity in all RP-HPLC fractions, except one, at the doses tested. Thus, the overall toxicity depends on the synergistic action of various types of proteins, such as dendrotoxins, fasciculins, and probably other synergistically-acting toxins. Polyspecific antivenoms manufactured in South Africa and India were effective in the neutralization of venom-induced lethality. These antivenoms also showed a pattern of broad immunorecognition of the different HPLC fractions by ELISA and immunoprecipitated the crude venom by gel immunodiffusion. The synergistic mechanism of toxicity constitutes a challenge for the development of effective recombinant antibodies, as it requires the identification of the most relevant synergistic toxins. Read it

2015
Laustsen AH, Gutiérrez JM, Rasmussen AR, Engmark M, Gravlund P, Sanders KL, Lohse B, Lomonte B. Danger in the reef: Proteome, toxicity, and neutralization of the venom of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis. Toxicon 2015, 107; p187-196.

Four specimens of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, were collected off the coast of Western Australia, and the venom proteome was characterized and quantitatively estimated by RP-HPLC, SDS-PAGE, and MALDI-TOF-TOF analyses. A. laevis venom is remarkably simple and consists of phospholipases A2 (71.2%), three-finger toxins (3FTx; 25.3%), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP; 2.5%), and traces of a complement control module protein (CCM; 0.2%). Using a Toxicity Score, the most lethal components were determined to be short neurotoxins. Whole venom had an intravenous LD50 of 0.07 mg/kg in mice and showed a high phospholipase A2 activity, but no proteinase activity in vitro. Preclinical assessment of neutralization and ELISA immunoprofiling showed that BioCSL Sea Snake Antivenom was effective in cross-neutralizing A. laevis venom with an ED50 of 821 μg venom per mL antivenom, with a binding preference towards short neurotoxins, due to the high degree of conservation between short neurotoxins from A. laevis and Enhydrina schistosa venom. Our results point towards the possibility of developing recombinant antibodies or synthetic inhibitors against A. laevis venom due to its simplicity. Read it

Laustsen AH, Lohse B, Lomonte B, Engmark M, Gutiérrez JM. Selecting key toxins for focused development of elapid snake antivenoms and inhibitors guided by a Toxicity Score. Toxicon 2015, 104; p43-45.

For more than 100 years, antivenoms have been produced by traditional methods of immunization of large mammals with mixtures of snake venoms (World Health Organization, 2010 and Gutiérrez et al., 2011). With the introduction of proteomic and transcriptomic tools in the molecular analysis of both venoms (venomics) (Calvete, 2014) and antivenoms (antivenomics) (Calvete, 2011 and Calvete et al., 2014), in combination with the toxicological assessment of venoms, a more in-depth understanding of venom composition and antivenom efficacy is being built. As retrieved from current public databases on Elapidae, values for Median Lethal Dose (LD50) are known for 203 toxins, belonging to seven protein sub-families, originating from 40 species (Fig. 1). Furthermore, the number of elapids for which venom-wide proteomics or transcriptomics studies have been reported has now reached 49 out of 355 described species (our unpublished data; http://www.reptile-database.org). Information is now available for a considerable number of species of high medical relevance. Read it

Laustsen AH, Gutiérrez JM, Lohse B, Rasmussen AR, Fernández J, Milbo C, and Lomonte B. Snake venomics of monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) and investigation of human IgG response against venom toxins. Toxicon 2015, 99; p23-35.

The venom proteome of the monocled cobra, Naja kaouthia, from Thailand, was characterized by RP-HPLC, SDS-PAGE, and MALDI-TOF-TOF analyses, yielding 38 different proteins that were either identified or assigned to families. Estimation of relative protein abundances revealed that venom is dominated by three-finger toxins (77.5%; including 24.3% cytotoxins and 53.2% neurotoxins) and phospholipases A2 (13.5%). It also contains lower proportions of components belonging to nerve growth factor, ohanin/vespryn, cysteine-rich secretory protein, C-type lectin/lectin-like, nucleotidase, phosphodiesterase, metalloproteinase, l-amino acid oxidase, cobra venom factor, and cytidyltransferase protein families. Small amounts of three nucleosides were also evidenced: adenosine, guanosine, and inosine. The most relevant lethal components, categorized by means of a ‘toxicity score’, were α-neurotoxins, followed by cytotoxins/cardiotoxins. IgGs isolated from a person who had repeatedly self-immunized with a variety of snake venoms were immunoprofiled by ELISA against all venom fractions. Stronger responses against larger toxins, but lower against the most critical α-neurotoxins were obtained. As expected, no neutralization potential against N. kaouthia venom was therefore detected. Combined, our results display a high level of venom complexity, unveil the most relevant toxins to be neutralized, and provide prospects of discovering human IgGs with toxin neutralizing abilities through use of phage display screening. Read it

Laustsen AH, Lomonte B, Lohse B, Fernández J, Gutiérrez JM. Unveiling the nature of black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) venom through venomics and antivenom immunoprofiling: Identification of key toxin targets for antivenom development. Journal of Proteomics 2015, 119; p126-142.

The venom proteome of the black mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis, from Eastern Africa, was, for the first time, characterized. Forty- different proteins and one nucleoside were identified or assigned to protein families. The most abundant proteins were Kunitz-type proteinase inhibitors, which include the unique mamba venom components ‘dendrotoxins’, and α-neurotoxins and other representatives of the three-finger toxin family. In addition, the venom contains lower percentages of proteins from other families, including metalloproteinase, hyaluronidase, prokineticin, nerve growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, phospholipase A2, 5′-nucleotidase, and phosphodiesterase. Assessment of acute toxicity revealed that the most lethal components were α-neurotoxins and, to a lower extent, dendrotoxins. This venom also contains a relatively high concentration of adenosine, which might contribute to toxicity by influencing the toxin biodistribution. ELISA immunoprofiling and preclinical assessment of neutralization showed that polyspecific antivenoms manufactured in South Africa and India were effective in the neutralization of D. polylepis venom, albeit showing different potencies. Antivenoms had higher antibody titers against α-neurotoxins than against dendrotoxins, and displayed high titers against less toxic proteins of high molecular mass. Our results reveal the complexity of D. polylepis venom, and provide information for the identification of its most relevant toxins to be neutralized by antivenoms. Read it

 

Popular science publications

2019
Føns S, Laustsen AH. Verdens giftigste edderkop har adskillige liv på samvittigheden. ForskerZonen 2019.
2018
Ahmadi S, Sørensen CV, Laustsen AH. A silent killer: The Gadim scorpion is the most dangerous scorpion of Iran. Splice 2018.
Sørensen CV, Laustsen AH. Hvad er verdens mest dødbringende slange? ForskerZonen 2018.
Føns S, Fuglsang-Madsen A, Laustsen AH. Why are some animals venomous? ScienceNordic 2018.
Føns S, Fuglsang-Madsen A, Laustsen AH. Hvorfor er nogle dyr giftige? ForskerZonen 2018.
Skaarup C, Krause KE, Laustsen AH. Krydsreaktivitet er nøglen til fremtidens supermodgift. ForskerZonen 2018.
Krause KE, Skaarup C, Laustsen AH. Vi har brug for modgift, der virker mod bid fra flere slangearter. ForskerZonen 2018.
Fuglsang-Madsen A, Jenkins TP, Laustsen AH. Developing modern medicins by simulating the human immune system. Splice 2018.
Føns S, Laustsen AH. Venoms that save lives. Splice 2018.
Fuglsang-Madsen A, Laustsen AH. Antistoffer kan designes i et reagensglas. Videnskab 2018.
Fuglsang-Madsen A, Laustsen AH. Antistoffer: Moderne lægemidler baseret på kroppens forsvarsmissiler. Videnskab 2018.
Laustsen AH, Jenkins TP. Big strides are being made in the push for affordable, effective antivenoms. The Conversation 2018.
Laustsen AH, Kiel CM. Slanger, der får dit blod til at stivne. Videnskab 2018.
Laustsen AH, Føns S. Gift redder menneskeliv. Videnskab 2018.
2017
Laustsen AH, Povlsen H. Hvad sker der i kroppen, når man vaccineres mod HPV? Videnskab 2017.
(SPANISH) Bermúdez EM, Martos AE. Hacia una nueva generación de antivenenos contra las mordeduras de serpientes. DICYT 2017.
Laustsen AH, Pus U. Harnessing Biotechnology in the Fight Against Snakebite. Splice 2017.
Laustsen AH, Høgberg L. Snakebites still exact a high toll in Africa. A shortage of antivenoms is to blame. The Conversation 2017.
Laustsen AH, Jürgensen JA, Nielsen EP. Kan man dø af at spise slangegift? Videnskab 2017.
Laustsen AH, Øhlenschlæger M, Ledsgaard L. Hvorfor vaccinerer man ikke mod slangebid? Videnskab 2017.
Laustsen AH, Øhlenschlæger M, Knudsen C. Derfor har vi brug for moderne modgifte mod slangebid. Videnskab 2017.
Laustsen AH, Knudsen C, Øhlenschlæger M. Slangearters gift er unikke cocktails af dræberproteiner. Videnskab 2017.
2016
Laustsen AH, Engmark M. How biotechnology could offer hope for snakebite victims. The Conversation 2016.

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